EezEdit

The topic of this article is the Exclusive Economic Zone, commonly abbreviated as EEZ, a maritime concept that shapes how nations govern ocean resources and commerce. Rooted in modern international law, the EEZ gives coastal states specific rights over living and non-living resources in a maritime band extending beyond their territorial seas. These rights are balanced by freedoms that other states retain, notably navigation and overflight, within a framework designed to prevent conflict while promoting orderly use of the oceans.

The exclusive economic zone (EEZ) is defined by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and, in practice, has become a central element of national sovereignty over maritime resources. In most cases the EEZ reaches 200 nautical miles from a coastal baseline, though variations exist when continental shelves extend farther or in archipelagic contexts. The concept codifies a middle ground between strict territorial sovereignty and the freedom of the high seas High seas.

Legal framework and scope

Definition and baseline

The EEZ is a zone in which a coastal state has sovereign rights for exploring, exploiting, conserving, and managing natural resources, both living and non-living, of the water column and the seabed. This is typically defined as up to 200 nautical miles from the baseline from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured. In some cases, the continental shelf may extend beyond 200 miles, giving additional rights to the coastal state over mineral and other non-living resources on and beneath the seabed. For the underlying law, see United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.

Rights and duties within the EEZ

Within the EEZ, the coastal state holds exclusive rights to the exploration and exploitation of natural resources, as well as authority over economic activity such as fishing, energy development, and seabed mining. The sea itself, while available for navigation and overflight, is subject to continental and global norms that govern peaceable uses and environmental protection.
The regulatory framework also requires the coastal state to prevent pollution and to protect the marine environment, balancing resource extraction with sustainability. Internationally recognized mechanisms exist for dispute resolution when neighboring states contest boundaries or resource rights, including treaty-based arrangements and, when necessary, arbitration or adjudication under UNCLOS

Relationship to other maritime zones

The EEZ sits between the territorial sea (a narrower zone, typically up to 12 nautical miles) and the high seas. Territorial seas are marked by more extensive sovereignty, while the high seas lie outside any state's jurisdiction and are subject to universal freedoms such as navigation and fishing under agreed rules.
Archipelagic states have special baselines and regimes under UNCLOS that recognize the unique geography of archipelagos, affecting how their adjacent waters are treated for EEZ and related purposes. For the broader architecture of maritime governance, see Territorial sea, Continental shelf, and Freedom of navigation.

Economic and strategic implications

Resource access: The EEZ represents a major source of revenue and strategic advantage, granting a country rights to the oil, gas, minerals, and fisheries within its waters. This has a direct impact on national energy security and rural and coastal economies that depend on fishing and related industries.
Investment and development: Clear EEZ rules tend to attract investment in offshore energy, aquaculture, and seabed research. Firms benefit from stable licensing regimes and predictable access to resources, which supports employment and regional development.
Trade and shipping: While EEZs constrain only resource exploitation within the band, they do not prevent the free movement of ships in international commerce. Freedom of navigation and overflight remain central to global trade, ensuring that the EEZ does not shut down the essential flow of goods and energy.

Security, enforcement, and governance

Enforcement: Coastal states often rely on coast guards, naval forces, and maritime police to enforce EEZ laws, inspect vessels, and prevent illegal fishing or mining. This requires capacity building, budgeting, and interagency coordination to avoid unauthorized incursions and to deter smuggling or piracy.
Disputes and settlements: When EEZ boundaries overlap or states disagree over continental shelf claims, disputes may be addressed through diplomatic channels, bilateral agreements, or international dispute-resolution mechanisms under UNCLOS. Where disputes persist, they can become focal points for regional tensions and require careful diplomacy and credible enforcement to maintain peaceable relations.
Global norms and reform: Proponents of a rules-based order argue that robust EEZ regimes provide predictable frameworks for sustainable use, encourage investment, and reduce destructive competition. Critics sometimes contend that the regime can be leveraged to shield domestic industries from foreign competition or to justify heavy-handed resource controls; in response, supporters emphasize transparent licensing, science-based management, and judicial dispute settlement as ways to harmonize national interests with global stability.

Controversies and debates

Sovereignty versus shared access: A central debate concerns how to balance national sovereignty with the freedoms of shipping, fishing, and research. Proponents stress that well-defined EEZs protect coastal communities and national industries, while critics worry about overreach or the potential for conflict in contested waters.
Overlapping claims and hotspots: In regions such as the South China Sea South China Sea and the Arctic, overlapping EEZs and continental shelf claims have raised tensions among rival powers. Advocates argue that adjudication under UNCLOS and clear bilateral arrangements can manage risk, while opponents fear maritime brinkmanship and stalled development.
Environmental and resource management: The drive toward greater offshore energy development and commercial fishing within EEZs raises questions about sustainability and the resilience of marine ecosystems. A centrist, market-informed view emphasizes science-based quotas, robust monitoring, and technology-enabled compliance rather than blanket restrictions or unilateral closures.
Critiques from the outside, responses from the center: Critics who frame EEZ regimes as neocolonial or protectionist are often accused of overlooking the stabilizing function of clear legal norms. From a pragmatic perspective, well-enforced EEZ regimes aim to protect domestic livelihoods, fund public goods, and reduce resource conflicts by codifying user rights and responsibilities. Advocates also point out that the EEZ framework aligns with long-standing customary rights and international law, and that reform efforts should focus on transparency, enforcement capacity, and dispute-resolution mechanisms rather than wholesale rejection of the model.