Biblical CanonEdit

Biblical canon refers to the authoritative list of books that a religious community recognizes as divinely inspired scripture. In practice, the canon shapes what is read, taught, and believed across generations, and it is not a single monolith but a family of canons that developed in distinct historical communities. The core idea is that a finite collection of writings, received and cherished by faith communities, serves as the standard against which doctrine, worship, and life are measured. While the term is often used to talk about both the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament, different traditions identify slightly different boundaries around what counts as scripture and how those books are arranged or interpreted.

Two broad streams have most shaped the modern discussion of the biblical canon: the Jewish tradition centered on the Tanakh (often called the Hebrew Bible in Christian contexts), and the Christian tradition that adds a New Testament collection alongside the Old Testament. In all cases, the canon is not simply a list of old writings; it is a living standard claimed to preserve the revelation entrusted to a community over time. Apostolic succession and the integrity of doctrine are often cited as the governing principles, along with liturgical usage and historical continuity.

Historical overview

Jewish canon and the Tanakh

The Jewish scriptures generally divide into three parts—the Torah (the Law), the Nevi'im (the Prophets), and the Ketuvim (the Writings). This tripartite structure, the order and emphasis of certain books, and the acceptance by Jewish communities over centuries culminated in what modern readers refer to as the Tanakh. The process of canonization was gradual and connected to liturgical practice, teaching, and the sense that these writings reliably mediated God’s covenants with Israel. See Tanakh for more on structure, content, and reception.

Early Christian usage and the New Testament

Early Christians inherited a substantial corpus of Hebrew scriptures and encountered new writings that claimed apostolic authority or alignment with the faith once delivered. Over the first few centuries, church communities debated which of these writings belonged in the collection now known as the New Testament. The early lists and acknowledgments came in forms such as the Muratorian Fragment and patristic writings, but a broad consensus did not crystallize overnight. The New Testament canon typically includes the Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke, John), the Acts of the Apostles, the Pauline and General Epistles, and the Book of Revelation, all viewed as properly teaching the apostolic faith. See New Testament for the standard twenty-seven-book collection recognized in most traditions.

Canon lists by tradition

Hebrew Bible and the Tanakh

While the term “Old Testament” is common in Christian contexts, many scholars and communities prefer the designation tied to the Hebrew tradition: the Tanakh. The Tanakh contains the same core material recognized by Christians in its prophetic and wisdom literature, but the arrangement and some emphasis differ from Christian canons. See Tanakh for details on order, content, and interpretive traditions.

Christian canons

Christian communities preserved and transmitted scriptures through a series of canon lists that divered in emphasis and scope across time and place.

Catholic canon: The Catholic Church recognizes a 73-book canon that includes the deuterocanonical books (Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach, Baruch, 1–2 Maccabees) and additions to Esther and Daniel. The Catholic arrangement places the Septuagint-derived material in a prominent position within the Old Testament. See Deuterocanonical books and Septuagint for context.
Protestant canon: The Protestant tradition coalesced around a 66-book collection (39 in the Old Testament and 27 in the New Testament) that omits the deuterocanonical books considered canonical by Catholics. The shift reflects a Reformation-era emphasis on certain textual bases and doctrinal criteria. See Old Testament and New Testament for broad framing.
Orthodox canons: Various Eastern Orthodox churches maintain canons that include additional texts and sometimes different orders or inclusions (for example, certain books regarded as canonical in some Orthodox traditions beyond the standard Catholic list). See Orthodox Church and Septuagint-based textual history for context.
Other canons: The Ethiopian and other ancient Christian communities include wider or different collections, reflecting regional traditions and linguistic communities. See Ethiopian Orthodox Tente traditions and related discussions.

Criteria and process

Traditionally, several criteria were invoked to determine canonicity:

Apostolicity or close connection to an apostle or primary Christian witness.
Orthodoxy or consistency with accepted doctrine and core Christian teaching.
Catholicity or widespread and sustained use across a broad range of communities and liturgical settings.
Inspiration or perceived divine authority recognized by believers as conveying God’s truth.

These criteria were not applied with mathematical precision in a single council or moment; rather, they emerged through discernment in worshiping communities, often aided by influential church leaders and regional synods. The result was a settled sense of which writings could be read aloud in church and used to instruct faith and practice. See Apostolic succession and Tradition for related concepts.

Controversies and debates

Biblical canon is not without dispute, and debates continue about history, authority, and interpretation.

Deuterocanonical/deuterocanonical debate: The status of certain books—such as Tobit, Judith, Wisdom, Sirach, Baruch, and 1–2 Maccabees—varies among traditions. Catholics and many Orthodox Christians treat these as canonical, while Protestants typically regard them as apocryphal or deuterocanonical. Advocates of a narrower canon emphasize doctrinal sufficiency and the primacy of the earliest, most widely accepted witnesses; critics argue that later political and ecclesial influences shaped lists. See Deuterocanonical books for more.
Textual sources and translation history: The weight given to the Septuagint in early Christian usage affected which books were read and valued in different communities. The Hebrew text, its translations, and late medieval/modern editions (including the Vulgate) all shaped canon perception. See Septuagint and Vulgate for background.
Variability across traditions: The existence of slightly different canons across Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant movements raises questions about unity and authority. Proponents emphasize a coherent, age-old standard anchored in apostolic witness; critics point to regional differences as evidence of fluid canon formation. See Catholic Church, Orthodox Church, and Protestantism.
Modern critique and defense: Some contemporary scholars emphasize the canon as a product of historical contingencies—political power, factional disputes, and institutional shaping—rather than a pristine, static revelation. Proponents of the traditional view respond by arguing that unity around a core corpus allowed for consistent preaching, moral formation, and doctrinal continuity across generations. In debates about the canon, calls for broader inclusivity are often framed as a attempt to reexamine ancient boundaries; defenders contend that the existing canon preserves essential teaching without compromising historical integrity. See Biblical canon and Marcion's canon for related discussions.
Social and ethical critique: Critics sometimes argue that traditional canons reflect particular historical power structures and exclude voices from marginalized communities. Advocates contend that the canon’s core function is to guard essential truth and provide a stable standard for faith, liturgy, and life, rather than to express modern political agendas. The discussion often centers on how communities interpret and apply the text today, rather than on the existence of the canon itself. See Interpretation and hermeneutics for related topics.

Textual tradition and reception

The reception history of the canon includes how communities read and re-read the scriptures across cultures and languages. Translation, liturgical use, and sermon practice influenced which books were considered authoritative in daily life. The development of the canon did not end with a single declaration; it remains a living conversation about what counts as divine scripture for a given community. See Reception history and Biblical interpretation for further exploration.