SciencesEdit
Science is the organized pursuit of knowledge about the natural world and its phenomena, grounded in empirical observation, testable hypotheses, and reasoned analysis. It aims to explain how things work, make reliable predictions, and generate technologies that improve human life. Although science spans many cultures and eras, its core method—bit by bit building on evidence, challenging assumptions, and revising conclusions in light of new data—acts as a check against superstition and unsupported claims. The sciences cover a broad range of inquiry, from fundamental questions about matter and life to practical applications in health, industry, and the environment.
This article surveys the scope of the sciences, their principal subfields, their methods, and their influence on society. It emphasizes the structure of scientific knowledge, the institutions that support research, and the ongoing debates that accompany advancing understanding. For readers seeking deeper dives into specific topics, the linked encyclopedia terms provide further context and cross-references Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Earth science, Astronomy, Mathematics, Logic, Computer science, Statistics, Sociology, Psychology, Economics, Political science, Engineering, and Medicine.
Branches of science
Natural sciences: These sciences study the natural world and its laws through observation and experimentation. Core disciplines include Physics, which explains fundamental forces and interactions; Chemistry, which studies the composition and behavior of matter; Biology, which explores living organisms and their processes; Earth science, which examines the planet’s systems (geology, meteorology, oceanography); and Astronomy, which investigates celestial objects and the universe beyond Earth.
Formal sciences: These disciplines formalize reasoning and develop the tools that underpin other sciences. They include Mathematics, the study of quantity, structure, space, and change; Logic, which analyzes valid inference; Statistics, which provides methods for collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data; and Computer science, which studies computation, information processing, and algorithmic methods.
Social sciences: These fields examine human behavior, institutions, and societies. They include Sociology, which analyzes social groups and structures; Psychology, the science of mind and behavior; Economics, which models how scarce resources are allocated; Political science, which studies governance and public policy; and Geography, which relates spatial patterns to cultural and physical landscapes.
Applied sciences: These disciplines use scientific knowledge to design and improve technologies, systems, and services. They include Engineering, which applies science to design and build structures, machines, and processes; Medicine, focused on diagnosing, treating, and preventing illness; and Environmental science, which addresses interactions between humans and natural ecosystems. Other applied areas include agriculture, energy, and materials science.
Interdisciplinary and emerging fields: Many modern problems require approaches that cross traditional boundaries, such as climate science, neuroscience, biomedical engineering, and data science.
Methods and institutions
Scientific method and evidence: The core sequence typically involves formulating hypotheses, designing experiments or observations, collecting data, and testing predictions. The strength of scientific claims rests on reproducibility, transparency, and rigorous analysis. See the Scientific method for a detailed account of this process.
Data, reproducibility, and open science: Modern research often emphasizes data sharing, replication of results, and methodological clarity to enable independent verification. Initiatives in Open science seek to make data, methods, and findings accessible to a broad audience.
Peer review and publication: Scientists share results through journals and conferences, with critical evaluation by independent experts. This process helps maintain standards, detect errors, and build consensus over time. See Peer review for more.
Institutions and funding: Research is supported by universities, national laboratories, independent institutes, and industry partnerships. Funding decisions, regulatory oversight, and ethical norms shape what research is pursued and how it is conducted. See University and Research and development for related topics.
Ethics and societal impact: Scientific work intersects with policy, culture, and values. Responsible conduct of research includes safeguarding human subjects, protecting the environment, and considering the broader implications of new technologies. See Bioethics and Science policy for related discussions.
History
The sciences have a long arc that stretches from ancient inquiry to the modern research university. Early civilizations made observations about the natural world and developed rudimentary technologies. The emergence of systematic inquiry in the ancient and medieval periods laid groundwork for later advances. A pivotal transformation occurred during the scientific revolution, when figures such as Nicolaus Copernicus, Galileo Galilei, and Isaac Newton helped shift knowledge toward testable hypotheses, quantitative reasoning, and empirical evidence. Over subsequent centuries, disciplines differentiated and specialized, while collaboration and competition across regions and institutions accelerated progress. See History of science for a fuller narrative.
Controversies and debates
Science often involves areas where data are complex, research is ongoing, and policy questions depend on interpretation of evidence. Broadly, contemporary debates in science fall into four arenas:
Uncertainty and interpretation: Some findings come with confidence intervals and caveats. Scientists frequently revise models and estimates as new data arrive, which can lead to public confusion if communicated imperfectly. See Uncertainty and Philosophy of science for related discussions.
Climate, health, and technology policy: There is widespread agreement on many core scientific conclusions (for example, that climate change is real and influenced by human activity). Debates often focus on the best policies, cost-benefit analyses, and implementation strategies rather than the underlying science itself. See Climate change and Public health for context, along with Energy policy and Science and policy.
Public understanding and education: The interpretation of scientific findings in schools and media can vary, sometimes leading to misinformation or oversimplification. Efforts to improve science literacy and critical thinking are ongoing. See Science education for related topics.
Ethical and governance considerations: Advances in genetics, artificial intelligence, and biomedical technologies raise ethical questions about privacy, safety, and societal impact. See Bioethics and Technology assessment for discussions of how science interacts with values and governance.