Other ReligionsEdit

Other Religions encompass belief systems beyond the dominant Western frameworks and extend across Asia, Africa, the Pacific, and the many indigenous cultures of the world. These traditions vary widely in doctrine, ritual practice, social organization, and historical development, yet they share common concerns with human flourishing, community, and the search for meaning. They have shaped art, philosophy, law, education, and public life, and they continue to influence civic norms in many countries through temples, mosques, churches, shrines, and charitable associations. In plural societies they interact with state institutions, markets, and civil society in ways that range from accommodation and dialogue to tension and controversy.

Religious life outside the more widely discussed Western traditions often centers on communal identity, lineage, and ethical codes that govern everyday conduct. These systems typically place a strong emphasis on tradition, familial obligation, and intergenerational transmission of beliefs. At the same time, they are not immune to reform; many communities have produced reform movements that reinterpret ancient teachings in light of new social understandings, economic changes, and contact with other cultures. The political and legal environments in which these religions operate influence how openly they practice, teach, and organize. See Religious freedom and Religious pluralism for related concepts.

Major traditions

Hinduism

Hinduism is a diverse and plural tradition with a long history in the Indian subcontinent. Core ideas include dharma (duty and moral order), karma (action and consequence), and moksha (liberation). The tradition embraces a wide range of beliefs about ultimate reality, including many gods and goddesses, as well as monistic and non-theistic perspectives. Public life often centers on ritual calendars, temple worship, and household rites, while philosophy and scriptural literature such as the Vedas and Upanishads have shaped ethical reflection for centuries. Contemporary debates within Hindu communities frequently address social reform, caste dynamics, and the balance between tradition and modern egalitarian norms. See Hinduism for a broader overview.

Buddhism

Buddhism presents a path toward awakening based on the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path, with an emphasis on impermanence (anicca), non-self (anatta), and dependent origination. It includes several major forms, such as Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana, each with distinct practices and monastic traditions. Meditation, ethical precepts, and scholarship play central roles in many communities, while lay and monastic life both contribute to social welfare and cultural expression. Buddhist communities adapt to local cultures in diverse ways, negotiating questions of modernity, gender roles, and religious pluralism. See Buddhism.

Jainism

Jainism is distinguished by a rigorous emphasis on ahimsa (non-violence) toward all living beings, ascetic practice, and a formal ethic of non-attachment. Jains pursue spiritual liberation through disciplined conduct, sacred texts, and community service, with a strong tradition of charitable work and education. The tradition has historically promoted careful environmental stewardship and ethical business practices, and it remains influential in regions where Jain communities are concentrated. Reform movements within Jainism interact with broader questions of modern rights, animal welfare, and social inclusion. See Jainism.

Sikhism

Sikhism centers on devotion to one God, the guidance of the Gurus, and a ethic of communal service (seva) and shared meals (langar). The faith stresses equality, social justice, and the rejection of caste distinctions, while maintaining a strong ethic of personal discipline and community responsibility. Sikh institutions—temples known as gurdwaras and educational and charitable organizations—play a visible role in public life in many countries, balancing religious identity with civic participation. Debates within and about Sikh communities sometimes address integration, gender equality, and the relationship between tradition and liberal democratic norms. See Sikhism.

Islam

Islam holds to the oneness of God (Allah) and the prophethood of Muhammad, with a comprehensive way of life articulated in the Qur'an and the hadith literature. The Five Pillars—faith, prayer, charity, fasting, and pilgrimage—structure daily life for Muslims around the world, while the global community is divided into diverse schools of jurisprudence and devotional practices. Across regions, debates arise over how Islamic law (sharia) interacts with civil law, human rights, education, and women's rights, as well as questions about religious tolerance and political authority. Islam, like other traditions, contains both deeply conservative currents and reformist voices seeking to harmonize faith with contemporary norms. See Islam.

Judaism

Judaism centers on the covenantal relationship between the Jewish people and God, with the Torah, rabbinic literature, and a long history of ritual and ethical practice guiding daily life. Jewish life encompasses synagogue worship, festival observance, dietary laws, and a strong emphasis on education, family, and community memory. Diasporic experiences have shaped interpretations of law, memory, and belonging, while modern movements have explored questions of secular identity, secularism, and religious pluralism within liberal societies. See Judaism.

Daoism (Taoism) and Confucian traditions

Daoism emphasizes harmony with the dao (the Way), naturalness, and practices that cultivate balance and longevity. Rituals, meditation, and alchemical or philosophical pursuits reflect a broad spectrum from folk religion to organized monastic traditions. Confucian thought stresses social harmony, filial piety, ritual propriety, and obligations to family and state, often shaping education systems and civic morals. In many regions these traditions have blended with local beliefs to create rich, public-facing cultures that influence schooling, governance, and community life. See Daoism and Confucianism.

Shinto and indigenous belief systems

Shinto centers on kami (spirits) and rituals that honor ancestors and celebrate community life. It often coexists with other faiths in the same society, shaping manners, festivals, and place-based identity. Indigenous and traditional African religions, as well as other local belief systems, emphasize kinship, land, and ancestral memory, and they frequently express moral norms through communal rites and customary law. See Shinto and see also entries on specific regional traditions.

Bahá'í Faith

The Bahá'í Faith teaches the unity of humanity, the progressive revelation of religious truth, and the elimination of prejudice. Adherents emphasize social justice, gender equality, and cooperation among peoples, while maintaining distinct devotional practices and administrative structures centered on local and national spiritual assemblies. See Bahá'í Faith.

Indigenous, African traditional, and other regional religions

Many societies maintain religious life rooted in ancestral reverence, ecological understanding, and communal rites that connect people to land, kinship, and memory. These traditions often address questions of governance, education, and social responsibility within a framework that is intimately tied to place and community. See Indigenous religions and African traditional religion for related topics.

Zoroastrianism

Zoroastrianism presents a moral dualism centered on truth-telling, order, and the cosmic struggle between good and evil, with rituals and a historical tradition that has shaped religious thought in the region of its origin and among diasporic communities. See Zoroastrianism.

Controversies and debates

Religious liberty in plural societies: balancing the right to worship and teach according to one’s conscience with other civil rights and public norms is a persistent tension, especially when religious practice intersects with education, healthcare, or employment. See Religious freedom.
Gender and family life: traditional religious norms about gender roles, marriage, and parenting often come under scrutiny in liberal democracies. Proponents argue for preserving community norms and religious freedom; critics push for equal rights and autonomy. The conversation includes within-tradition reformers who seek to reinterpret texts in light of contemporary understandings of equality.
Proselytism and conversion: debates about religious freedom versus social pressure or state oversight arise in various contexts, with conservatives typically defending conscience-based conversion rights and critics sometimes worrying about coercion or manipulation. See Religious freedom and Proselytism.
Religion and politics: the fusion of religious authority with political power can yield social cohesion or, in other cases, fuel factionalism and conflict. Some observers warn against religious nationalism, while others emphasize that faith communities contribute to public virtue and civic charity.
Modernity and reform: many traditional communities actively debate how to sustain heritage in the modern world, including education, technology, media, and globalization. Reform movements within these traditions have produced a spectrum from cautious adaptation to more radical change.