History Of Ukraine During World War IiEdit
Ukraine’s experience in World War II sits at the crossroads of empire, occupation, and a stubborn, enduring drive for national self-determination. The war transformed Ukrainian lands—from the western borders that had shifted hands multiple times in the 20th century to the eastern steppes where the Soviet Union still held sway. It was a period of brutal occupation, fierce resistance, and difficult choices by rival Ukrainian movements as they sought a future free of both Soviet domination and foreign domination. The following article traces the principal actors, events, and debates that shaped Ukraine during the war years, while noting the lasting debates over memory, legitimacy, and moral responsibility that still echo in today’s politics.
In the interwar and wartime context, Ukraine found itself divided and precarious. The western territories of what is today Ukraine had been incorporated into the Polish state in the 1920s and 1930s, while the eastern and central lands formed the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic within the USSR. The collapse of the Polish state in 1939 and the subsequent Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941 brought about shocks that would test loyalties and accelerate movements toward autonomy. The period was characterized by competing visions of Ukraine’s future: a nationalist aspiration for an independent Ukrainian state, a reaction to Soviet rule and conscription, and a willingness of some actors to cooperate with the occupying power in pursuit of national goals. See Ukraine and World War II for broader context.
World War II and the Occupation of Ukraine
Prelude: empire, exile, and awakening national consciousness
In the years leading up to the war, Ukrainian national consciousness—long suppressed under imperial and then Soviet rule—reasserted itself in many communities. Political life was unsettled, with competing strategies among Ukrainian actors: some favored compromise with larger powers in pursuit of statehood, others pursued more direct forms of independence. The Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN) emerged as a prominent political force, later splitting into factions that pursued different paths. At the same time, Ukrainian veterans of liberation struggles and rural communities maintained a memory of self-rule that would shape wartime choices. See Stepan Bandera for one central figure associated with the more assertive faction of the movement.
In 1941, Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union, and large portions of Ukrainian lands fell under German occupation. The Nazi administration established the Reichskommissariat Ukraine, a governance framework led by officials who pursued their own brutal priorities and policies. Ukrainian actors navigated this occupation with a mix of resistance, collaboration, and survival strategies, all set against a backdrop of extraordinary human suffering. For the broader structure of German control in occupied Eastern Europe, see Nazi Germany and Reichskommissariat Ukraine.
The invasion and occupation (1941–1944): a brutal theater
The German advance in 1941 shattered the prewar order. In many Ukrainian lands, administrative and security structures were built on a punitive logic aimed at extracting resources and suppressing dissent. The presence of German authorities created space for Ukrainian groups to pursue their own aims, but it also imposed limits and brutal penalties for resistance. The occupation featured mass violence, deportations, and destruction that affected every level of society. For the broader framework of the war in Europe, see World War II and Nazi Germany.
Within this environment, Ukrainian nationalist organizations grew more active. The Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN) and its factions, along with the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA), pursued the goal of an independent Ukraine. The Bandera faction (often associated with the term OUN-B) and the Melnyk faction (OUN-M) differed in emphasis and strategy, but both framed their actions within the aim of national self-determination rather than subordination to Moscow or Berlin. These movements undertook operations against German and Soviet targets at various times, and their activities included both guerrilla warfare and efforts to secure local support in rural areas. See Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists and Ukrainian Insurgent Army.
Some Ukrainian volunteers and formations were incorporated into German security structures, including the 14th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (1st Galician) (composed largely of Ukrainian volunteers from Galicia). This collaboration remains one of the most controversial aspects of the period, and it illustrates the moral complexity of wartime choices: some actors believed that cooperation with the Germans could hasten Ukraine’s independence, while others argued that any collaboration with an aggressive regime carried grave moral costs. For context on the German occupation apparatus and military formations, see Nazi Germany and Holocaust in Ukraine.
The Holocaust and ethnic violence: terror and tragedy
The Nazi regime’s policies in Ukraine were tied to a systematic campaign of genocide and ethnic violence. The Jewish population suffered intensely in areas under occupation, with mass shootings and deportations carried out with the complicity, coercion, or active participation of local collaborators and German security services. The Holocaust in Ukraine is a central, tragic chapter of the war, illustrating the extreme brutality of occupation and the moral catastrophe that confronted Ukrainian communities. See Holocaust in Ukraine and Holocaust for the broader history.
Alongside the persecution of Jews, Ukrainian territories saw episodes of ethnic violence and retaliation between communities, especially in borderlands where Polish, Ukrainian, and Jewish populations lived in close proximity. The Volhynia and Eastern Galicia region became the setting for brutal violence between Ukrainian insurgent forces and Polish groups, culminating in large-scale massacres of Polish civilians conducted in 1943–44. These episodes remain among the most disputed and sensitive aspects of wartime memory. See Massacres of Poles in Volhynia for the specific events and ongoing historiographical debates.
The partisan war and counterinsurgency
As German control solidified, the Soviet partisans and the Red Army carried out operations behind enemy lines, aiming to disrupt supply lines and undermine occupation. The partisan war affected cities and rural territories alike and contributed to the broader Soviet war effort. The Red Army’s advance in 1943–44, supported by partisan activity, gradually pushed German forces back from Ukrainian soil, setting the stage for the eventual Soviet reestablishment of control in most of the region. See Soviet partisans for the broader partisan movement and Red Army for the Soviet military presence.
The Volhynia tragedy and aftermath of violence
The Volhynia massacres and related violence in Eastern Galicia involved Ukrainian insurgent units targeting Polish civilians in a brutal effort to secure a future Ukrainian state in the borderlands. The events remain a deeply contested part of wartime memory, with historians arguing over responsibility, scale, and intent, while Polish and Ukrainian communities continue to grapple with their implications. These episodes illustrate how the war’s catastrophic violence could crystallize ethno-national grievances and shape postwar relations in the region. See Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Poland–Ukraine relations for related discussion.
End of the war: a war’s turning and the path to postwar Ukraine
By 1944–45, Soviet forces had regained most of Ukraine, and the Red Army’s advance was accompanied by large-scale displacement and reorganization. Ukrainian nationalist leaders were captured, killed, or forced underground, and many fighters dispersed into exile or folded into the broader Soviet order. The war thus concluded with Ukraine re-entrenched within the USSR, while a new generation of Ukrainians began to imagine a future beyond Soviet rule. See Soviet Union and Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic for the postwar framework.
Legacy and memory, historiography, and contemporary debates
The wartime history of Ukraine remains a contested field among historians, policymakers, and communities. Proponents of a sovereignty-centered reading emphasize Ukraine’s long-standing struggle for independence and argue that many nationalists acted from the position of seeking liberation from both Soviet and foreign domination. Critics point to the moral costs of collaboration with occupying powers and condemn violent acts committed in the name of national aims. The historiography encompasses questions about the scale of collaboration, the motives of different groups within the Ukrainian nationalist movement, and the extent to which wartime actions should shape today’s national narrative. The debate also intersects with memories in neighboring countries, especially Poland and Russia, and with modern political questions about how Ukraine’s past should inform its future.
From this vantage point, the war is read as a crucible in which Ukraine’s national identity and statehood emerged under extreme conditions. The memory of the war’s violence—toward Jews, Poles, and other communities; toward Soviet authorities; toward occupiers—continues to influence contemporary debates about commemoration, national symbols, and cross-border relations. See Stepan Bandera for a central historical figure associated with the nationalist strand of this history, Ukrainian Insurgent Army for the armed-wing dimension, and Holocaust in Ukraine for a focused treatment of the genocide, as well as Massacres of Poles in Volhynia for the Polish side of the linked tragedy.