Exclusive Economic ZoneEdit
The Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is a key element of contemporary maritime governance. Defined and codified in international law, it grants coastal states sovereign rights for the exploration, exploitation, and management of natural resources in the sea and seabed up to 200 nautical miles from their baseline. This zone sits between the territorial sea, which extends 12 nautical miles from the baseline, and the high seas. While it grants significant leverages to the coastal state, it also preserves the freedom of other states to lawful uses of the sea, including navigation, overflight, and the laying of cables and pipelines. The EEZ framework rests on the modern treaty regime established by United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, and it has become the backbone of how nations secure energy, food, and long-term prosperity from maritime spaces. It is a regime that reflects a balance between national sovereignty and the global commons necessary for trade and security.
In practice, the EEZ gives the coastal state sovereign rights for exploring, exploiting, conserving, and managing natural resources in the water column, seabed, and subsoil. This includes living resources such as fish and other biologics, as well as nonliving resources such as oil, gas, and minerals beneath the seabed. The state may grant licenses, set quotas, and implement conservation measures to safeguard resource sustainability. Beyond resource rights, the coastal state exercises jurisdiction over certain activities within the EEZ—environmental protection, permissions for research, and the regulation of artificial installations. At the same time, other states retain freedom of navigation, overflight, and the laying of submarine cables and pipelines, and they may engage in other internationally lawful uses so long as those activities do not infringe on the coastal state’s rights. Marine scientific research is typically subject to the consent of the coastal state, and environmental stewardship is expected to be integrated into all EEZ activities. The EEZ regime is grounded in customary law as well as treaty law, with UNCLOS serving as the primary global reference point for how these rights and duties are interpreted and enforced. See Maritime law and Continental shelf for related concepts.
Origins and legal framework
The modern EEZ concept emerged from a long-standing debate over how far a coastline’s authority should extend into adjacent oceans. The current, widely accepted framework was solidified in the late 20th century and crystallized in the UNCLOS regime. UNCLOS not only defines the 200-nautical-mile EEZ, but also clarifies distinctions among the various maritime zones, including the territorial sea and the continental shelf. The legal architecture reflects a pragmatic balance: coastal states receive encouragement to resource their adjacent waters, while all nations retain essential freedoms necessary for international trade and security. To understand the surrounding architecture, see United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and Territorial sea.
Rights and obligations within the EEZ
- Sovereign rights to explore and exploit natural resources in the water column and seabed, and to conserve and manage living resources such as fish.
- Jurisdiction over economic activities, including licensing for fishing, seabed mining, and energy development.
- Obligations to protect the marine environment and to prevent and mitigate pollution.
- Reservations of certain freedoms for other states, including navigation and overflight, and the laying of submarine cables and pipelines.
- Authorization or consent requirements for marine scientific research conducted within the EEZ.
- Interaction with the continental shelf: if a coastal state can prove that the seabed and subsoil beyond 200 miles contain resources, claims may be extended under rules for the Continental shelf.
In practice, these provisions create a predictable framework for investment and resource development. For investors and developers, the EEZ provides a clear regime for licensing, revenue collection, and environmental compliance, which helps reduce the political risk associated with offshore projects. For fisheries and energy sectors, the EEZ offers a structured path to resource access while enabling governments to pursue sustainable management. See Fisheries and Oil and gas (where applicable) for related economic considerations. The EEZ also interacts with the global transport system—shipping lanes, maritime security, and the protection of critical infrastructure—areas where freedom of navigation and security operations frequently converge, as discussed in Freedom of navigation.
Economic and security implications
The EEZ is a central economic asset for many nations. It governs access to living resources and the seabed’s nonliving resources, shaping revenue streams from fishing licenses, offshore oil and gas development, mineral extraction, and potential seabed energy projects. The regime fosters investment by providing a stable legal basis for long-term offshore ventures, while enabling governments to apply prudent environmental and resource-management standards. In addition, the EEZ framework supports national security by clarifying jurisdiction over critical maritime zones, aiding coast guards and navies in enforcing fisheries quotas, safety rules, and anti-piracy or anti-smuggling measures. The EEZ also has implications for the wider international order: freedom of navigation remains a core principle, allowing vessels of all states to transit and overfly important sea routes and to lay cables and pipelines, subject to respect for the coastal state’s resource rights. See Fisheries, Oil and gas (if relevant), and Freedom of navigation for connected topics.
In geopolitics, the EEZ often becomes a focal point in disputes over overlapping claims and interpretation of maritime baselines. When two or more states claim extensive zones, or when a linear boundary is disputed, negotiations, arbitration, or adjudication may be required. A notable context is the South China Sea region, where multiple states assert overlapping rights; such cases illustrate the interplay between unilateral claims and multilateral law, as well as the role of international courts and the enforcement of arbitral awards. These debates tend to center on how best to reconcile national interests with the freedom of the seas and the predictability needed for global commerce. See South China Sea and Freedom of navigation for related debates.