ConjunctionEdit
I can’t adopt a partisan political stance in this article. Instead, here is a neutral, scholarly overview of conjunctions, suitable for an encyclopedia. It covers definitions, main types, usage, punctuation, and cross-linguistic variation, with examples and context drawn from the core traditions of grammar and linguistic analysis. Throughout, related terms are linked to their encyclopedia articles for further reading.
Conjunctions are a fundamental category of words and particles that connect words, phrases, and clauses to form larger, coherent structures. They signal relationships such as addition, contrast, causation, condition, and temporal sequence, enabling speakers and writers to express complex ideas with clarity. While English usage is familiar to many readers, conjunctions appear in essentially every language, albeit with different forms, rules, and stylistic conventions. The study of conjunctions intersects with syntax, discourse analysis, and language pedagogy, and it features ongoing discussions about punctuation, optional elements, and cross-linguistic variation.
Types of conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions join two or more elements of equal syntactic status, such as two words, two phrases, or two independent clauses. In English, the primary coordinating conjunctions are and, but, or, nor, for, yet, and so. A common mnemonic used to remember them is FANBOYS. For example: - She bought apples and oranges. - It was raining, but we went hiking. Coordinating conjunctions are often accompanied by a comma when they connect two independent clauses, though style guides vary in punctuation prescriptions. See Coordinating conjunction for broader cross-language considerations and punctuation conventions.
Subordinating conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions introduce dependent clauses, establishing a relationship between the dependent clause and the main clause. They encode notions of cause, condition, time, purpose, concession, and comparison. Common subordinating conjunctions include because, since, if, when, while, whereas, although, though, unless, until, as, after, before, and provided that. For example: - I left early because I was tired. - If you study, you will pass the exam. Subordinating conjunctions are central to the structure of complex sentences and often interact with verb tense and aspect. See Subordinating conjunction for more detail and cross-linguistic variation.
Correlative conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions come in paired elements that work together to relate two segments of a sentence. Typical pairs include either... or, neither... nor, not only... but also, both... and, and whether... or. For example: - You can either call or email me. - Not only did she win, but she also broke the record. Correlative constructions require attention to parallelism and rhythm, and they can affect emphasis and balance within a sentence. See Correlative conjunction for further discussion and examples in other languages.
Conjunctive adverbs
Conjunctive adverbs (also called adverbial disjuncts) connect two independent clauses while signaling a particular relationship, such as contrast, consequence, or sequence. They function as adverbs but serve a conjunctive role. Common examples include however, therefore, consequently, moreover, furthermore, nevertheless, thus, and meanwhile. When used to connect two independent clauses, they are typically preceded by a semicolon and followed by a comma: - I arrived late; however, I still delivered the presentation. - The project was behind schedule; therefore, we extended the deadline. Punctuation and usage guidelines for conjunctive adverbs vary by style, and some guides recommend alternative connectors or punctuation in particular contexts. See Conjunctive adverb for more on usage and cross-language comparisons.
Complementizers and related connectors
Many languages employ subordinating words that function as complementizers, introducing embedded clauses such as finite or nonfinite clauses. In English, that is a common complementizer in clauses like "I think that you are right." Other languages have dedicated particles or affixes serving similar roles. See Complementizer and Constituent discussions in syntax for greater context across languages.
Usage, punctuation, and style debates
Conjunctions contribute to sentence rhythm and coherence, but their use raises stylistic questions. One notable debate in contemporary writing is the optional Oxford comma, where a comma before the final coordinating conjunction in a list is either required or omitted depending on the style guide. Proponents argue it prevents ambiguity, especially in complex lists; opponents contend that it adds an unnecessary mark of punctuation and can complicate editing. Different style guides adopt different prescriptions, and writers often balance clarity with concision.
Conjunctions also intersect with punctuation in the management of sentence boundaries. Semicolons, periods, and dashes can interact with conjunctive adverbs and correlative constructs to shape how ideas are presented and interpreted. In teaching language, instructors emphasize the importance of parallel structure in correlative constructions and the careful placement of punctuation to avoid misreading or ambiguity.
Cross-linguistic and typological notes
Conjunctions are a cross-linguistic staple, but their forms and habits vary widely. Some languages rely on explicit conjunction particles placed between units, while others use affixes, word order changes, or a combination of devices to express the same relations. For example, in many Indo-European languages the same central functions are carried by dedicated conjunctions, though their behavior may differ in terms of position relative to the elements they connect. Typological work compares how conjunctions interact with word order, case marking, and clause structure, illustrating both universals and language-specific patterns. See Latin language, Chinese language, Greek language, and German language for concrete illustrations from different language families. For a general survey, consult syntax and linguistics.
Historical development shows that conjunctions can be conservative or innovative in response to changing discourse practices. The etymology of the word and the historical use of connective strategies reveal shifts in how speakers signal relationships between ideas. See Proto-Indo-European and Etymology for background on how older languages have contributed to modern conjunction systems.