ChristianityEdit

Christianity is one of the most influential and enduring religious traditions in world history. At its core, it presents belief in one God who is Father, Son, and Spirit, and it centers on the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth as the decisive event in human history. Across its diverse expressions, Christianity has shaped ethics, education, art, law, and public life, while also provoking sharp debate about how faith should relate to politics, science, and culture. The tradition is marked by a spectrum of practices and doctrines, from liturgical worship and sacramental life to reformist movements that have reinterpreted Christian faith for new contexts.

From its beginnings in the first century, Christianity grew from small Jewish-Christian communities into a world religion. Early believers affirmed the authority of the Hebrew scriptures and, in the New Testament, the witness of Jesus and the apostles. The central message is often summarized in terms of grace, faith, and transformation: humanity is fallen and in need of redemption, which God offers through Jesus Christ; individuals respond in faith and repentance, and their lives are renewed by the Holy Spirit. The church sees baptism as the initiatory rite into the people of God and the Lord’s Supper (commonly called communion) as a memorial that also feeds spiritual life. The long arc of Christian history has included councils and creeds that clarified doctrine, reform movements that challenged established patterns of worship and authority, and a broad spectrum of communities that differ in governance, ritual, and social emphasis.

Origins and core beliefs

Core doctrines

Belief in one God who exists as a unity of three persons: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit (the doctrine known as the Trinity).
The incarnation: Jesus is the eternal Word made flesh, fully divine and fully human.
Atonement and resurrection: Jesus’ death serves as a reconciliation between God and humanity, and his resurrection inaugurates new life for believers.
Salvation by grace through faith: divine grace enables trust in Christ, creating a moral and spiritual transformation rather than mere adherence to rules.
Scripture and tradition: the Bible is a central authoritative source for faith and practice, and church tradition interprets and safeguards that faith through the ages.
The church and sacraments: communities of believers gather for worship, teaching, and the administration of rites, notably baptism and the Lord’s Supper, as visible signs of grace.
The mission of the church: followers are called to proclaim the gospel, live out the values of the Kingdom, and serve the world through acts of mercy and justice.

Sacred texts

Christianity reveres the Bible as its primary sacred text, consisting of the Old Testament (shared with Judaism) and the New Testament, which contains the four Gospels, letters from early Christian leaders, and the book of Revelation. Different traditions emphasize various aspects of Scripture—whether as the inspired word in its written form, or as a living guide interpreted within the life of the church. The books of the Gospels—Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John—offer accounts of Jesus’ life and message, while the letters of Paul and other apostles provide instruction on faith, ethics, and church life.

Historical development

Christianity arose within the Roman world and gradually formed distinctive structures and traditions. The early church faced questions about the nature of Christ, the authority of the apostles, and how salvation is accomplished. The first four ecumenical councils helped define key beliefs (for example, the Nicene Creed). Over time, a formal structure developed in which bishops governed local churches and, in many contexts, the bishop of Rome emerged as a primate within the Western church. The Great Schism of 1054 split the Christian world between what became the Roman Catholic Church in the West and the Orthodox Churches in the East, a division driven by theological, cultural, and political factors.

The Protestant Reformation of the 16th century challenged established authority and practices in Western Christianity, emphasizing principles such as the authority of Scripture (sola scriptura) and justification by faith alone (sola fide). Figures like Martin Luther and John Calvin catalyzed a wide range of reform movements that produced numerous denominations, including Lutheran, Reformed, Anglican, Anabaptist, and later Baptist and Methodist traditions. In contrast to these reform currents, the Catholic Church initiated responses like the Counter-Reformation, which reaffirmed core doctrines and pursued internal renewal.

Denominations and traditions

Christianity today comprises a broad family of communions and movements that share core beliefs while differing in governance, worship, and social emphasis. The three broad family groups most commonly discussed are:

Catholicism: centered on the pope’s authority, the seven sacraments, and a continuity of tradition and teaching safeguarded by the Magisterium. Catholic theology has a long tradition of natural law, social teaching, and the sacramental life of the church.
Orthodoxy: including the Eastern Orthodox churches, which emphasize conciliar governance (through synods) and a liturgical, highly historic form of worship. The Orthodox world shares many theological foundations with Catholicism but operates without papal supremacy.
Protestantism: a family of churches that formed in post-Reformation Europe and spread worldwide. It includes diverse streams such as Lutheran, Reformed, Anglican, Baptist, Pentecostal, and evangelical traditions, each with distinctive approaches to scripture, church governance, and sacramental practice.

Across these broad families, Christian communities distinguish themselves through practices such as baptism (variously understood as infant or believer’s baptism) and the Lord’s Supper. They also differ on issues such as church leadership (episcopal, presbyterian, congregational), the role of Mary and the saints, the understanding of grace and faith, and the pace and scope of social reform.

Influence on civilization

Christianity has had a deep and long-lasting influence on many aspects of public life. In education, charitable care, medicine, and social welfare, Christians and church institutions have often organized and funded schools, hospitals, orphanages, and relief networks. In law and political thought, Christian ethics and natural-law reasoning have shaped ideas about human dignity, justice, and the limits of power. Across different eras, Christian thinkers contributed to fields such as philosophy, theology, and the arts, helping to form cultural norms and patterns of civic life.

Religious liberty is a recurring theme in Christian political thought, especially in societies that prize pluralism and the right of individuals to follow conscience. This has often translated into advocacy for conscience protections and freedom of worship, alongside debates about the proper scope of church influence in public policy. In many countries, Christian organizations have been at the forefront of humanitarian work and international relief, offering aid in times of famine, war, and disaster.

The Christian moral imagination has also shaped conversations about family life, education, and the common good. Traditionalists often emphasize the importance of stable families, youth formation, and community-based charity as foundations of a healthy society, while recognizing that modern pluralism requires institutions to respect the rights and dignity of all people, including those with different beliefs or lifestyles.

Controversies and debates

Christianity has persistently wrestled with difficult questions, both within its own communities and in relation to broader society. A right-of-center perspective in this article tends to emphasize continuity with tradition, the dignity of conscience, and the defense of religious liberty, while acknowledging that past and present tensions demand continual reform and humility.

Science, reason, and interpretation of scripture: debates persist over how to reconcile scientific understanding with scriptural accounts of origins and creation. Many Christian traditions accept an compatibility between faith and science, including a view of creation that embraces evolutionary processes as part of God’s creative plan. Others have argued for biblical literalism or intelligent design approaches. Critics sometimes accuse religious reasoning of impeding scientific progress, while proponents insist that core moral and metaphysical questions are best answered within a theistic framework that honors human reason.
Church and state, religious liberty, and public policy: the place of faith in public life remains contested. Proponents of broad religious liberty argue that conscience rights and freedom of worship are essential to a pluralist democracy. Critics argue that religious beliefs should not override public norms on equality and non-discrimination. A traditionalist line, however, holds that religious communities ought to have space to teach, organize, and operate in line with their convictions, provided they do not infringe the rights of others.
Morality, sexuality, and family life: Christian communities have long taught that marriage is a covenant between a man and a woman and that human life has intrinsic dignity from conception. In recent decades, debates over same-sex relationships, gender identity, and abortion have generated fierce discussion. From a traditionalist view, policy and law should reflect the enduring moral insights of scripture and natural-law reasoning, while also seeking to protect the universal dignity of all persons and to provide compassionate care for those affected by difficult life circumstances.
Race, justice, and memory: Christian communities have a complex history with race. Some churches participated in and profited from systems of oppression; others led abolitionist and civil-rights movements, drawing on biblical claims about human dignity and justice. Contemporary debates often center on how best to atone for past wrongs, repair institutions, and promote equality before the law. Critics argue that religion has sometimes reinforced segregation or hierarchy, while proponents point to the church’s role in advancing human dignity, charitable outreach, and social reform.
Colonialism, missions, and cultural encounters: Christian missions historically occurred in tandem with colonial expansion in various regions. Critics note that missionary activity could be entangled with cultural imperialism and coercive power. Proponents emphasize the humanitarian impulse behind many missions—education, medical care, famine relief, and the spread of literacy—and point to reforms within missions that have sought to respect local cultures and promote self-determination, autonomy, and local leadership. The modern assessment often highlights both the good done and the harm caused, urging accountability and thoughtful engagement with cross-cultural relationships.
Internal reform and reform movements: Across history, Christian communities have reformed themselves to address perceived failures and injustices. The Catholic Church, for example, engaged in the Counter-Reformation and, in the 20th century, the reforms of the Second Vatican Council, which opened the church to greater reform and engagement with the modern world. Protestant communities have undergone analogous renewals, with waves of revival, revivalism, and social reform that sought to apply faith to education, health care, and civic life. These reforms illustrate a pattern of continuity and adaptation that many traditionalists see as evidence of deep-rooted vitality rather than timidity or inconsistency.
Contemporary culture and “woke” criticism: Critics sometimes argue that Christian institutions resist social progress or marginalize certain groups. From a traditionalist vantage, such criticisms can overlook the hard-won reforms that many churches have implemented in recent decades, and may misinterpret the moral aims of religious communities. Advocates contend that religious liberty protects the right of communities to practice and teach according to their convictions, while still recognizing the broader moral imperative to treat all people with dignity. They may also note that religious organizations have been among the earliest and most persistent supporters of education, health care, and relief efforts, and that the core message of Christianity—human dignity, repentance, redemption, and love—remains compelling across cultures.
Writings on social ethics and human flourishing: the Christian tradition has long framed human flourishing in terms of a holistic view of life—spiritual, social, and economic. Advocates of conservative social ethics argue that stable families, free association, and voluntary institutions foster a resilient civil society. Critics sometimes claim this stance is exclusionary or discriminatory; defenders respond that a robust defense of religious liberty and traditional moral norms does not equate to coercion but rather to insisting on conscience rights and the possibility of peaceful coexistence in a plural society.

Modern landscape

Today, Christianity remains globally diverse. In many parts of the world, churches grow in regions such as sub-Saharan Africa and parts of Asia, while in parts of Europe and North America, affiliation tends to be more cultural than doctrinal, with many congregations reforming traditional practices to fit contemporary life. The relationship between Christian communities and politics varies by country and tradition: in some places, faith groups play a direct role in public policy; in others, they emphasize voluntary association and charitable action rather than political power. Across traditions, leaders emphasize catechesis, religious liberty, and service to neighbors as enduring responsibilities of Christian life.

Theological debates persist about how best to interpret scripture in light of modern knowledge, how to apply ancient ethical teachings to new social contexts, and how to cultivate interfaith respect while preserving distinctive convictions. Institutions rooted in Christian heritage continue to operate hospitals, schools, charities, and conservative-leaning think tanks that seek to advance the common good, protect vulnerable populations, and sustain a civic culture shaped by moral commitments.