CherokeeEdit
The Cherokee are a Native American people with a long and influential history in the southeastern United States and a continuing presence across the nation today. They developed a sophisticated society in the valley and foothill country of the Tennessee and Savannah basins, blending agricultural practice, governance, and literacy in ways that helped shape the broader story of Native American adaptation to changing political and economic conditions. By the 19th century, the Cherokee had established a constitutional government, built towns with planned layouts, and fostered a high level of literacy and print culture that reached beyond their borders through the Cherokee Phoenix, one of the first Native American newspapers. The upheavals of the era—most notably the forced removal known as the Trail of Tears—drastically altered Cherokee life and sovereignty, but the nation rebuilt in Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma) and later reasserted self-government within the framework of United States law. Contemporary Cherokee communities are spread across the United States, with the three major federations—the Cherokee Nation, the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, and the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians—playing influential roles in regional and national affairs.
History
Pre-contact and early contact
Before European contact, the Cherokee lived in a settled, agriculturally based society with towns, intricate social structures, and organized leadership. They cultivated crops such as corn, beans, and squash and built complex towns that supported commerce and cultural exchange with neighboring peoples. The arrival of Europeans and the pressures of colonization brought rapid changes in governance, landholding, and trade that the Cherokee navigated through adaptation and negotiation.
19th century: removal, reform, and reinvention
In the early 1800s the Cherokee embraced a politique of modernization, adopting a written constitution in the early 19th century and creating a centralized government modeled in part on Western legal and political forms. The creation of the Cherokee syllabary by Sequoyah in the 1820s and the rapid spread of literacy helped circulate ideas about governance, law, and citizenship across the nation and within Cherokee communities themselves. The Cherokee Nation established a constitution and a written body of laws, cementing a sense of national unity.
This era also brought catastrophe. The United States government pursued removal policies to relocate Native peoples from the southeastern states to lands west of the Mississippi. The Indian Removal Act of 1830 and the controversial Treaty of New Echota (1835) culminated in the forced relocation known as the Trail of Tears, during which thousands of Cherokee died from exposure, disease, and deprivation. The surviving Cherokee relocated to Indian Territory, where they rebuilt their government and institutions while negotiating with the federal government for recognition of their new jurisdiction. The 1866 treaty at the end of the Civil War reaffirmed and adjusted some of these relationships, setting terms for land and sovereignty that would influence later developments.
20th century to present: sovereignty, revival, and governance
Throughout the 20th century, federal policies oscillated between assimilation aims and self-determination. The Dawes Act and the Curtis Act prompted further fragmentation of communal landholdings in Indian Territory and undermined traditional patterns of property and governance, contributing to a period of upheaval for Cherokee land and political life. In the latter half of the century, federal policy shifted toward recognizing tribal sovereignty and promoting self-governance, with tribes taking on greater responsibility for education, housing, health, and economic development through programs authorized by Congress.
Today, the Cherokee Nation operates as a large, autonomous government within the United States, maintaining a constitution, elected leadership, and a system of tribal courts and services. The Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians in North Carolina and the United Keetoowah Band in Oklahoma represent other core Cherokee communities, each with its own governance structures and programs. Across these communities, efforts to preserve language and culture coexist with initiatives to support business development, public health, and education. Contemporary Cherokee life is characterized by a blend of traditional practices—such as ceremonies and clan-based social networks—with modern institutions, including higher education, healthcare systems, and enterprise initiatives.
Language, culture, and education
Cherokee language and culture constitute a central element of Cherokee identity. The Cherokee syllabary, created by Sequoyah, helped enable widespread literacy and the production of texts that circulated in Cherokee communities and beyond. The Cherokee Phoenix, one of the earliest Native American newspapers, disseminated news in both Cherokee and English and contributed to a sense of a shared political and cultural project. Today, language revitalization remains a central concern for Cherokee communities, with immersion programs, schools, and cultural centers playing a key role in passing on linguistic and ceremonial traditions to new generations. The result is a living culture that honors historical roots while engaging with contemporary life.
Governance, law, and sovereignty
Cherokee political organization historically combined traditional leadership with elected institutions modeled on broader American legal and constitutional frameworks. The modern Cherokee Nation, along with the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians and the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians, operates with constitutions, tribal councils, and executive leadership to administer law, regulate commerce, and manage resources. Tribal sovereignty—recognized in varying degrees through treaties, federal law, and court decisions—allows Cherokee governments to enact laws governing land, taxation, health, education, and cultural stewardship within their territories. The relationship with the federal government, state governments, and neighboring jurisdictions continues to evolve, balancing the desire for autonomy with obligations to citizens and to the wider political system.
Controversies and debates surrounding Cherokee sovereignty often center on questions of land rights, treaty interpretation, and the scope of tribal authority versus state and federal authority. The legacy of removal policies and assimilation programs remains a focal point for scholars, policymakers, and tribal leaders who argue about how history should inform present-day policy. Proponents of strong tribal self-government emphasize the importance of sovereignty for economic development, cultural preservation, and community safety. Critics sometimes raise concerns about the management of resources or the pace of legal reform, while defenders of sovereignty argue that only tribal governments can adequately address the unique needs of their communities. Debates around economic development frequently touch on the role of gaming enterprises and tax structures, with supporters pointing to revenue for essential services and critics urging diversification and prudent stewardship.
From a cultural perspective, the Cherokee have faced questions about balancing traditional practices with modern social norms. Advocates for cultural preservation argue that language use, ceremony, and historical memory are essential for community cohesion and identity, while others stress inclusion and modernization of social institutions. In all of these discussions, the Cherokee perspective emphasizes responsibility, self-reliance, and a clear commitment to upholding contracts and governance that reflect the community’s values.
Economy and modernization
Economic development among Cherokee communities has included a mix of traditional crafts, agriculture, education, healthcare, and enterprise ventures. Casinos and other gaming facilities have become a significant source of revenue for some Cherokee nations, enabling investments in infrastructure, social programs, and public services. Proponents argue that these ventures support self-determination and community improvement, while critics call for diversified, non-gaming strategies to stabilize long-term prosperity. Across the Cherokee nations, emphasis on stewardship of natural resources, investment in healthcare and education, and support for small business enterprise reflects an overarching aim of strengthening sovereignty while contributing to regional economic activity.
Notable figures and institutions
The Cherokee have produced leaders, scholars, and cultural contributors who shaped regional and national life. John Ross, a prominent Cherokee chief, led a major political faction resisting removal and negotiating for Cherokee rights within the United States. Sequoyah’s creation of the syllabary stands as a landmark achievement in literacy and cultural autonomy. The Cherokee Phoenix served as a platform for political thought and cultural exchange in the early 19th century. Contemporary figures and institutions—such as the leadership of the Cherokee Nation, the cultural programs at the Cherokee Heritage Center, and the language preservation initiatives within the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians—continue to influence public life.