Canon Of The BibleEdit
The Canon of the Bible refers to the collection of books that different religious communities regard as sacred, authoritative scripture. In Judaism, this body is known as the Tanakh, traditionally divided into the Torah (Law), Nevi'im (Prophets), and Ketuvim (Writings). In Christianity, the canon comprises the Old Testament (the Hebrew scriptures as read in light of the gospel) and the New Testament, though the exact contents differ among traditions such as the Catholic, Orthodox, Protestant, and certain Oriental churches. The word canon comes from the Greek kanon, meaning a standard or measuring rod, signaling the authority these texts hold for faith, practice, and identity. The identification of a biblical canon was a slow, multi-century process rather than a single act of ratification.
The development of the canon shaped and reflected communities, their theology, and their liturgy. Early believers looked to texts that bore apostolic authority or connection, aligned symbolically with the apostolic teaching, and circulated in worship and teaching across congregations. The process involved evaluating many early writings for consistency with the core message of Jesus and the gospel, and it was influenced by the use of scriptures in worship, catechesis, and pastoral guidance. Modern scholars study this history with reference to ancient manuscripts, early church writings, and the usage patterns of various Christian communities. The role of translation, translation culture, and manuscript transmission also affected how canons took shape in different regions and languages, such as the use of the Septuagint in the Septuagint tradition and the later influence of the Masoretic Text in the Hebrew and Jewish spheres.
This article surveys how canons emerged, what criteria were used to judge books as authoritative, and how different traditions arrived at their final lists. It also considers the debates that have surrounded inclusion and exclusion, and how later communities interpreted older texts in light of evolving doctrinal and liturgical needs. For readers exploring the topic, related discussions often touch on the reception of specific books, the role of councils and church authorities, and how textual criticism has informed our understanding of the biblical collection, including connections to Dead Sea Scrolls and other ancient sources.
History and Development
Hebrew Bible and the Tanakh
The Hebrew scriptures were formed over centuries within the ancient Near Eastern context. The Torah, Nevi'im, and Ketuvim constitute the Tanakh in Jewish tradition, a framework that came to formal recognition in successive stages. The core materials of the Torah achieved near-universal status among ancient Jewish communities, while the Prophets and Writings accrued authority as their own horizons of interpretation and liturgical use expanded. The final shape of the Tanakh was solidified in the post-exilic and Second Temple periods, with later Jewish scholarship and scribal traditions—most notably the Masoretic Masoretic Text—providing the standard Hebrew text that underpins most modern Bibles. The discovery of earlier manuscripts, including the Dead Sea Scrolls, shows both continuity and variation in how these books were transmitted and understood, underscoring that canonic authority developed through communal practice as much as through explicit declaration.
New Testament Canon
In early Christianity, a diverse set of writings circulated among congregations, including letters of Paul, gospels, and other early texts. Communities assessed these writings by criteria such as apostolicity (direct or rooted in the teaching of the apostles), doctrinal consistency with the core gospel message, and recognized usage in worship across churches. The process was gradual and regional more than universal at first. The famous Muratorian fragment, dating to the late 2nd century, offers one of the earliest attempts to articulate a list of accepted works, though it is not identical to later canons. By the 4th century, a broad consensus had formed in most Christian traditions around a 27-book New Testament canon, though debates persisted in various circles about the inclusion of particular texts such as Revelation, Hebrews, and some of the catholic epistles. Prominent early testimonies and lists from figures like Athanasius and from regional synods and councils helped standardize the collection, culminating in recognitions by communities that would shape later definitions in places like Carthage and Hippo.
Deuterocanon and Anagignoskomena
Within Christian usage, certain books that are included in the Septuagint and in the Catholic and Orthodox canons are not found in the Hebrew Bible. These are often called the Deuterocanonical books by Catholic tradition or the Anagignoskomena in some Orthodox contexts. They include works such as Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach (Ecclesiasticus), Baruch, and 1 and 2 Maccabees, as well as additions to Esther and Daniel in some traditions. Protestant traditions typically categorize these as apocryphal, treating them as valuable historical or devotional literature but not on the same level as the canonical books. The exact list and status vary among traditions, with the Ethiopian canon including additional books beyond the standard Deuterocanon in many other churches.
Criteria and Debates
Early Christians and later theologians relied on a set of criteria to determine canonicity. Apostolicity connected a work to the teachings and authority of the original apostles or their closest associates. Orthodoxy meant alignment with the church’s developing doctrine about the nature of God, Christ, salvation, and ethics. Catholicity (universality) referred to the widespread use of a text across Christian communities in worship and teaching. Inspiration was tied to a sense that the Holy Spirit protected and guided the texts for faith and life. Finally, consistency with the accepted canon and the life of the church reinforced a book’s authority.
Scholars continue to discuss how these criteria were applied in practice. Some books faced longer debates about apostolicity or doctrinal fit, while others gained broad acceptance quickly due to liturgical usage or clear apostolic connections. The traditional view of a defined moment at which a council fixed the canon has been revised by modern scholarship, which emphasizes a gradual process of recognition across diverse communities, with councils and bishops providing authoritative endorsement rather than a single binding act. Controversies around the canon often reflect competing priorities—historical reliability, theological coherence, pastoral usefulness, and the authority of tradition.
Canons in Different Traditions
Catholic Canon
The Catholic Old Testament includes the Deuterocanonical books, which are regarded as canonical and inspired. The Catholic Church’s definition of canonical scripture has long tied into its broader tradition and Magisterial teaching, with official lists and declarations narrowing down the books accepted as authoritative. The Catholic New Testament contains the same 27 books recognized in most other traditions, though the emphasis on the Deuterocanon in liturgy and doctrine reinforces distinctive theological focuses found in Catholic theology and practice. See discussions of Apostolic Succession and Council of Carthage for historical development, as well as the influence of the Vulgate in shaping Catholic biblical usage.
Orthodox Canon
The Orthodox churches generally maintain a broader Old Testament than the Protestant churches, often including additional deuterocanonical/Anagignoskomena texts and some regional variations. This broader canon reflects differences in the patristic tradition and liturgical usage in Eastern contexts. The Orthodox canons also differ slightly in how they order and prioritize certain writings, but share a common reverence for the core gospel materials of the New Testament. For context, see Eastern Orthodoxy and the role of Patristic witnesses in shaping biblical authority.
Protestant Canon
Most Protestant traditions accept a canon that aligns with the Hebrew Bible’s contents for the Old Testament and the 27-book New Testament, while typically treating the Deuterocanonical books as non-canonical. This stance reflects the Reformers’ emphasis on scriptural primacy and the principle of sola scriptura, alongside a skepticism about extra-canonical authority. The impact of the Protestant Reformation reshaped biblical canons across Europe and the Americas and influenced later translations such as the King James Version and other vernacular Bibles.
Ethiopian Canon
The Ethiopian Orthodox Church preserves a much broader biblical corpus, including books and texts that are not part of the canons of most other Christian traditions. This broader collection reflects unique theological and liturgical developments in the Ethiopian church and contributes to a distinctive Christian biblical landscape in Africa. See Ethiopian Orthodox Church for the broader textual tradition and its implications for canon formation.
Texts, Transmission, and Translation
Biblical canons are intimately tied to the textual history of the books they contain. The Hebrew Tanakh has its standard text in the Masoretic Text tradition, while the Christian Old Testament often relies on translations from Hebrew and, in antiquity, from the Septuagint, a Greek translation widely used by early Christians. Later Latin, medieval, and modern translations—such as the Vulgate and contemporary vernacular Bibles—reflect ongoing scholarly study of manuscripts, variants, and historical contexts. The canon’s authority is thus tied not only to theological claims about inspiration but also to the community’s confidence in the textual integrity and interpretive tradition surrounding each book.