Biblical CanonsEdit

Biblical canons denote the collections of books that a religious community treats as divinely inspired and authoritative for faith and practice. These canons are not a single, uniform set produced at one moment; rather, they grew out of long-standing traditions, debates, and empirical use across generations and communities. For Judaism, the core scriptures are bound up in what is commonly called the Hebrew Bible or the Tanakh, which organizes sacred literature around law, prophecy, and wisdom. For Christians, the canon expands to include a distinct collection of writings in the New Testament, alongside the older Hebrew scriptures. The exact boundaries and ordering of these canons differ among traditions, and those differences have shaped beliefs, worship, and church life for centuries. See how the Tanakh Tanakh and the New Testament New Testament relate to the broader concept of biblical canons; see also the Masoretic Text Masoretic Text and the Septuagint Septuagint for textual history.

Old Testament canons

Jewish and Hebrew Bible tradition

In Judaism, the canon is traditionally understood as the Tanakh, a tri-fold arrangement consisting of the Torah (Law), the Nevi'im (Prophets), and the Ketuvim (Writings). The process of finalizing this collection occurred over centuries and reached a broadly accepted form in late antiquity. The Masoretic Text Masoretic Text became the standard Hebrew text in medieval times, while earlier textual witnesses, including the scrolls found at Qumran, show that the shape of the canon and the ordering of books varied in ancient communities. For background on how the Hebrew scriptures were transmitted and organized, see also the Dead Sea Scrolls and related studies of biblical text history Dead Sea Scrolls.

Christian Old Testament traditions

Early Christians eventually settled on a collection of scriptures that included the Hebrew Bible but arranged and sometimes expanded it in light of Christian faith. Different Christian families read and counted books slightly differently. The Catholic and Orthodox churches include a set of deuterocanonical books—works that are part of some canons but not others (see deuterocanon). Protestants typically separate these as apocrypha, treating them as valuable for the Church but not as equally binding Scripture. The question of which books belong in the Old Testament thus diverges by tradition, with implications for doctrine, liturgy, and moral teaching. See also Deuterocanonical books and the history of the Council of Trent for Catholic confirmation of the deuterocanonical books in the Catholic canon, versus the Protestant tradition that gathered a different Old Testament list.

New Testament canon

Formation in the first centuries

The New Testament canon—that is, the collection of writings believed to bear apostolic witness and to be authoritative for Christian faith—was not established overnight. Early lists and fragments reveal a developing consensus about which books were to be read in churches. The Muratorian Fragment is one of the earliest witnesses to a defined set of New Testament books, and figures such as Marcion prompted a more explicit articulation of what should and should not be considered canonical. Over time, a broader and more uniform collection emerged among churches across the Mediterranean world, guided by criteria that would come to be formalized in later councils and official declarations.

Canonical lists and regional variation

By the 4th century, significant regional and synodical affirmations helped stabilize the New Testament canon. Key milestones include early Council of Hippo and Councils of Carthage discussions, which endorsed a 27-book New Testament collection that aligns with what most churches accept today. The Catholic Church’s official recognition came later in the Council of Trent (mid-16th century), while many Protestant communities maintained the same 27-book New Testament from earlier affirmations, with differences mainly in the Old Testament. The Orthodox churches also recognize the same core 27 texts but differ in some Old Testament books included in their broader Old Testament canons. See also Apostolic Fathers for how early Christian teaching and writings informed the sense of authoritative apostolic witness.

Contents and structure

The 27 New Testament books include the four Gospels, acts of the apostles, the letters of Paul and other apostles, and the book of Revelation. The process of recognizing these writings rested on criteria such as apostolic authorship or association, consistency with the apostolic teaching, and use in worship across churches. The interplay between the New and Old Testaments in early Christian faith is central to doctrinal formation and ecclesial life, shaping beliefs about Christ, salvation, and the Church’s mission.

Criteria and processes

Across traditions, several criteria commonly guided canonicity: - Apostolicity: a text’s connection to the original apostles or their close associates. - Orthodoxy: alignment with the core faith once handed down, especially as expressed in the early Church’s rule of faith. - Widespread usage: recognition and continual use in churches across regions. - Inspiration: the sense that the text bears a divine commission for teaching and faith. These criteria were applied over time in local communities and wider church councils, with the result that different traditions closed their canons at different moments and with different inclusions. See Apostolicity and Rule of faith for more on these criteria, and Muratorian Fragment for an early window into how the early Church treated canonicity.

Deuterocanonical books and apocrypha

The term deuterocanonical refers to books that are accepted as scripture by some traditions (notably the Catholic and Orthodox churches) but are not part of the Hebrew Bible and are not always included in Protestant canons. These include Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach (Ecclesiasticus), Baruch, and additions to Esther and Daniel, among others. The status and inclusion of these works provide a major point of difference between Christian families and help explain why different Bibles look different. See Deuterocanonical books for more detail and the related discussions around the term apocrypha in Protestant usage.

Controversies and debates

Historical debates

Scholars debate how and when precisely the canons took their final shape. Proponents of traditional accounts emphasize continuity with ancient apostolic communities and the guiding hand of the Holy Spirit in preserving doctrinal integrity. Critics sometimes point to regional variation and the power dynamics of ecclesiastical authorities as factors in canon formation. In practice, debates have centered on questions such as the status of certain Deuterocanonical books, the inclusion of particular Jewish and Christian writings, and the relative authority of apostolic instruction versus broader church usage.

Modern critiques and responses

Some contemporary critics argue that canons functioned primarily as tools of institutional power or as products of cultural biases. Proponents of traditional understandings respond by highlighting the pervasive and durable use of certain writings in worship, catechesis, and mission across diverse Christian communities, and by stressing the consistent witness to the core gospel message across generations. In the face of criticisms that invoke modern social concerns, defenders of the historic canons argue that the texts were formed within a specific historical framework and that their enduring authority rests on perceived divine inspiration and communal discernment, not on modern political considerations. When critics claim that the canon unjustly excludes voices, supporters often point to the breadth of canonical material that has shaped moral and doctrinal teaching for centuries, and to the careful debates by early church leaders aimed at preserving doctrinal unity.

Canonical status across traditions

Catholic, Orthodox, and some other ancient Christian communities accept the broader Old Testament canons including deuterocanonical books; Protestant communities generally maintain a narrower Old Testament and recognize the same 27-book New Testament, while sometimes treating the deuterocanon as useful for history and instruction but not binding. The Ethiopian canon is a notable exception in its broader scope, including additional books such as Enoch and Jubilees in some editions. See Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, and Protestant Reformation for broader denominational contexts, and Orthodox canons as a study of regional variations.