Anfal CampaignEdit
The Anfal Campaign refers to a prolonged series of military operations conducted by the Iraqi regime under Saddam Hussein against Kurdish populations in northern Iraq from 1986 to 1989. Named after an ancient Arabic term meaning “spoils of war,” the campaign was part of a broader state strategy to suppress Kurdish autonomy and enforce a policy of Arabization in the country’s north. While the episode is widely cited as a brutal chapter in modern Iraqi history, it also fed into later regional dynamics, including how Western powers viewed the Ba'athist regime and the Kurdish question in a post–Gulf War order. The period culminated in some of the regime’s most notorious acts, including the Halabja chemical attack of 1988, and left a lasting imprint on both Kurdish memory and international policy toward Iraq.
The Anfal operations unfolded within the broader context of the Iran–Iraq War and the Ba'ath Party’s effort to reshape Iraq’s periphery to fit its centralized, security-focused model. The Kurdish population, concentrated in the rugged hills of Iraqi Kurdistan, had long pressed for greater cultural rights and political autonomy, a pursuit that clashed with Baghdad’s insistence on centralized control. The campaign involved mass relocations, village destructions, systematic executions, and the destruction of countless villages and civilian infrastructure. It was overseen by top Iraqi security leaders, among them Ali Hassan al-Majid, commonly known as Chemical Ali, whose role in the use of chemical weapons during the campaign is widely documented. The violence is connected to the broader regime’s use of chemical weapons and a coercive policy aimed at breaking Kurdish resistance and altering the demographic map of the region. The Halabja attack in March 1988, in which thousands of civilians were killed by chemical agents, stands as the most infamous single episode of the campaign and a symbol of the regime’s willingness to unleash mass murder against civilians.Saddam Hussein Ali Hassan al-Majid Kurdish people Halabja Chemical weapon Genocide Ba'ath Party
Historical background
- The Kurdish population in northern Iraq has long maintained distinct language, culture, and political aspirations, which often brought friction with Baghdad’s central authorities. The Ba'ath Party’s rise to power in the 1960s and 1970s accelerated efforts to domesticate the north and suppress separatist tendencies, culminating in periodic campaigns and shifting policies aimed at “Arabizing” the region. The Iran–Iraq War intensified the regime’s reliance on forceful measures to deter support for Kurdish autonomy and to secure supply lines and territories contested along the frontier. The period set the stage for a highly coercive approach that would culminate in the Anfal campaigns.Kurdish people Ba'ath Party Iraq Iran–Iraq War
The Anfal campaign
- Timeline and scope: Between 1986 and 1989, Iraqi forces conducted a series of operations across northern Iraq, aimed at dismantling Kurdish political and military leadership and suppressing civilian support networks.
- Tactics and consequences: The campaign relied on mass arrests, executions, deportations, and the destruction of thousands of villages. Large numbers of people were displaced or killed, with the total toll often cited as tens of thousands, though precise counts vary across sources. The use of chemical weapons, including during the Halabja attack, marked a grim feature of the campaign and underscored the regime’s willingness to employ weapons of mass destruction against civilian populations. The campaign also involved the extraction of forced confessions, the desecration of graves, and widespread evidence of crimes against humanity.Chemical weapon Genocide Halabja Ali Hassan al-Majid]
Repercussions and aftermath
- Aftermath in Iraqi policy and regional order: The Gulf War coalition’s victory in 1991 and the subsequent establishment of no-fly zones in northern Iraq constrained Saddam’s military capabilities and created space for Kurdish self-administration within a de facto autonomous zone. The Kurdish region gradually gained a degree of self-rule and international attention that shaped subsequent Iraqi politics and regional stability. The memory of Anfal contributed to the international community’s ongoing concerns about human rights abuses in Iraq and informed later policy debates about intervention, reconstruction, and governance in the country. For many observers, the Anfal period solidified the perception of Saddam’s regime as a threat to regional order and international norms.Gulf War No-fly zone in northern Iraq Iraq Kurdish people
Controversies and debates
- Genocide labeling and legal interpretation: There is broad scholarly and human-rights consensus that the Anfal campaign constitutes severe crimes against humanity and, in many assessments, genocide or genocidal acts. Some commentators, often affiliated with different strategic or ideological vantage points, have debated the precise legal qualifiers or the sequencing of responsibility, but the essential character of the regime’s actions—mass killings, deportations, and systematic destruction of civilian life—is widely acknowledged. The debate frequently centers on attribution of intent and the appropriate scope of accountability for senior leaders and security apparatus.Genocide Crimes against humanity Ali Hassan al-Majid
- International inaction and responsibility: Critics on the political right and left alike have argued that Western powers could and should have acted more decisively to deter or halt the violence earlier. Supporters of more aggressive early action contend that strategic considerations—regional stability, the risk of broader war, and concerns about civilizational alignments—played a role in delaying a robust response. The subsequent Kurdish protections and the no-fly zones are presented by some observers as evidence that prudent, targeted international measures can meaningfully reduce civilian risk without full-scale regime change. Others argue that the later interventions and policies were necessary to prevent a continuation of mass violence and to secure long-term regional stability. The debate reflects larger questions about humanitarian intervention, risk, and national interest in foreign policy.No-fly zone in northern Iraq Operation Provide Comfort Saddam Hussein]
- Accountability and trials: In the aftermath of regime change, Iraqi authorities conducted trials addressing the Anfal crimes, convicting several officials in proceedings that drew both praise for delivering accountability and criticism over due-process concerns. The handling of these cases is often cited in discussions about how best to achieve justice for victims while maintaining rigorous legal standards and political legitimacy. The balance between reconciliation, accountability, and regional stability continues to shape how actors remember and respond to long-ago atrocities.Anfal Crimes against humanity Saddam Hussein